The climatology of 850 hPa wind and rainfall in observations and CMIP5 models is shown in Fig. 11.1. In observations (Fig. 11.1A), the strong southwesterly winds flow from the Indian Ocean to the Bay of Bengal (BOB), all the wa ...
A cloud climatology describes the time-averaged geographical distribution of cloud properties and their diurnal, seasonal, and interannual variations. Visible and infrared radiation measurements from space are us ...
In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term crime does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition, though statutory definitions have ...
Geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of spatial or geographical data. The acronym GIS is sometimes used for geographical information science or geospatial in ...
Marine algae are an important primary producer in the marine food chain, and affect the biogeochemical cycle of arsenic in the marine ecosystem. Marine algae have the capacity to accumulate 1000 times more arsenic than its concentration in the sur ...
More such measurements and networks for measurements are needed, particularly in developing countries where use of technology to reduce vulnerability to climate variability is severely limited. ...
Agricultural climatology relies on records of basic meteorological measurements having been taken over extensive areas and significantly long periods of time. These records form the basis for understanding climate variability and change ...
At the individual level, a simple process of identifying objectives and risks, weighing their importance and creating plans, may be all that's necessary. At the strategic organisational level, more elaborate policies are necessary, specifying ...
Earliest studies of climatology centered on simple descriptions of local weather and climate. With growing number of observations, scientists strived to quantify climates by summarizing records taken at various locations and introduced the concept ...
Rapid technological change, increasing scale of industrial complexes, increased system integration, market competition, and other factors have been shown to increase societal risk in the past few decades. As such, risk assessments become incr ...
In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term crime does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition, though statutory definitions have ...
Oceanography is the sum of these several branches. Oceanographic research entails the sampling of seawater and marine life for close study, the remote sensing of oceanic processes with aircraft and Earth-orbiting satelli ...
Climatology has evolved along with our ability to observe and measure the system’s elements including basic temperature and precipitation, cloud types, atmospheric humidity, wind speed and velocity, barometric pressure, soil moistu ...
In the engineering of complex systems, sophisticated risk assessments are often made within safety engineering and reliability engineering when it concerns threats to life, en ...
A disaster could be a natural or artificial (or technological) hazard leading to an occurrence of considerable extent inflicting important physical harm or destruction, loss of life, or forceful modification to the atmosphere. A disaster may be ex ...
Although these events shade Earth from solar radiation by releasing large amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, those same greenhouse gases contribute to global warming. However, much of the climate change that climatologists ...
Additionally, climatologists look at natural changes in air and ocean currents like El Niño and La Niña, which are phases in a fluctuating cycle of air and ocean temperature over the Pacific Ocean. The oscillation between t ...
Risk assessment can also be made on a much larger "systems" scale, for example assessing the risks of a nuclear power plant (an interactively complex mechanical, electronic, nuclear, and human system) or a hurricane (a complex meteorolog ...
Climatologists seek to understand three main aspects of climate. The first aspect is the weather patterns that govern normal conditions in different regions throughout the world. Secondly, climate scientists try to understand the relationship betw ...
The first studies of climate can be traced back to ancient Greece, but climate science as it is now known did not emerge until the advent of the industrial age in the nineteenth century. The science of climatology grew as scientists beca ...